What Regon of the Us Is Beef and Hog Probuuction Prevalent
Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2018 Jul; 31(7): 1007–1016.
Current situation and future trends for beefiness product in the United States of America — A review
James Southward. Drouillard
aneSection of Animal Sciences and Manufacture, Kansas Land University, Manhattan, KS 66506, Us
Received 2016 Jun 8; Accepted 2018 Jun eight.
Abstruse
United states beef production is characterized by a multifariousness of climates, environmental conditions, fauna phenotypes, direction systems, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. The The states beefiness herd consists of more than than 80 breeds of cattle and crosses thereof, and the industry is divided into distinct, but ofttimes overlapping sectors, including seedstock production, cow-calf production, stocker/backgrounding, and feedlot. Exception for male person dairy calves, production is predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock spending relatively brief portions of their life in feedlots. The beefiness industry is very technology driven, utilizing reproductive direction strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, focusing on improvements in efficiency and cost of product. Young steers and heifers are grain-based diets fed for an average of five months, mostly in feedlots of one,000 head chapters or more, and typically are slaughtered at 15 to 28 months of age to produce tender, well-marbled beef. Per capita beef consumption is nearly 26 kg annually, over half of which is consumed in the course of basis products. Beef exports, which are increasingly of import, consist primarily of loftier value cuts and multifariousness meats, depending on destination. In contempo years, adverse climatic conditions (i.e., draught), a shrinking agricultural workforce, emergence of nutrient-borne pathogens, concerns over development of antimicrobial resistance, animal welfare/well-being, environmental impact, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beefiness, consumer perceptions of food creature production practices, and alternative uses of traditional feed grains have go increasingly important with respect to their impact on both beefiness product and demand for beefiness products. Similarly, irresolute consumer demographics and globalization of beefiness markets accept dictated changes in the types of products demanded past consumers of USA beef, both domestically and abroad. The industry is highly adaptive, however, and responds quickly to evolving economic signals.
Keywords: Beefiness, Production Systems, Growth Promotion, Carcass Quality
INTRODUCTION
Beef production systems in the The states are characterized by a broad range of climates, environmental conditions, animal phenotypes, management practices, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. In contrast to international perceptions, Us production systems are, with the notable exception of male dairy calves, predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock typically spending relatively brief portions of their life in confinement facilities for finishing on high-concentrate diets. Beefiness production at the moo-cow-dogie level is widely distributed, and exists in all l states, spanning the range from tropical savannah to Arctic tundra, temperate plains, and mountain pastures. Vast differences in geographies and climatic weather necessitate the utilise of a wide spectrum of animal phenotypes that are suited to these environments, encompassing both Bos taurus and Bos indicus breeds and crosses thereof. The feedlot phase of product, which usually is between 100 and 300 days elapsing, is heavily concentrated within the interior of the continental USA, and relies heavily on cereal grains and grain byproducts produced within this area as predominant feed resource, and feedlot cattle most unremarkably are marketed at ages ranging from 15 to 28 months. Production of beef in the U.S. historically has been very technology driven, utilizing reproductive management strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, all of which focused on improving efficiency and(or) decreasing cost of beefiness production. In more recent years, adverse climatic weather (i.e., draught), a shrinking agronomical workforce, control of nutrient-borne pathogens, concerns over development of antimicrobial resistance, brute welfare, fauna well-existence, environmental impact of confinement feeding operations, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beef, consumer perceptions of food fauna production practices, and alternative uses for traditional feed grains have become increasingly important with respect to their impact on both beef product and need for beefiness products. Similarly, changing consumer demographics and globalization of beefiness markets have dictated changes in the types of products demanded from producers of U.S. beef. Beef production systems are thus increasingly dynamic in their nature, and poised to exploit new market opportunities past altering production practices to meet irresolute consumer demands.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF U.Southward. COW-CALF OPERATIONS AND FEEDLOTS
As of January 31, 2018, total United states inventory of beef cows was estimated at 31.7 million head, with cow-calf operations in all fifty states [1]. The beef cow inventory fluctuates considerably from year to yr, as shown in Figure 1, and can be influenced heavily by marketplace conditions and ecology factors, such every bit persistent draught conditions. In the Usa, about 320 meg hectares are used for livestock grazing [2], which is equivalent to 41% of the full country area of the continental USA. Approximately 55% of all beef cows are maintained in the Key region of the continental Us [3], which is characterized past vast native grasslands and expansive production of row crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, grain sorghum, and other crops. Roughly 20% of the national herd is in the Western region, commonly utilizing expansive land areas that are federally owned and leased to beefiness producers past authorities agencies. The Southeastern region, often typified by smaller production units that rely heavily on improved pastures, also is home to approximately twenty% of the national herd. The remaining v% are interspersed throughout the Northeast, Alaska, and Hawaii. Each of these regions makes use of very different systems of beefiness production, attributable to a divergent range of climates and feed resources in each area. For example, western herds frequently employ federal lands for grazing in the bound and summertime, and cattle then are removed from federal lands and overwintered on privately-owned pastures and/or fed harvested forages until the starting time of the next grazing cycle. Past contrast, operations in the Key region frequently brand employ of a mixture of native grass pastures, crop residues, harvested forages, and protein concentrates to sustain their cow herds.
US beef cow inventory on January 1, from 1938 to 2018. Source: United states Department of Agriculture [1].
Feedlots, different cow-dogie operations, are far more than concentrated geographically, with over 72% of feedlot production occurring in the v-state expanse [4] of Nebraska (19.8%), Texas (xviii.ix%), Kansas (17.5%), Iowa (ix.0%), and Colorado (7.one%). Concentration of feedlots in this area is largely driven by access to cereal grains and grain byproducts that predominate the diets of finishing cattle. Other important regions for cattle feeding have developed throughout the country in response to availability of low-cost feedstuffs, particularly byproduct feeds. For example, the Washington-Idaho region is a major site for production and processing of potatoes, fruits, and vegetables as foods for humans. Cattle feeding operations accept developed in response to availability of large quantities of processed nutrient residues in this region, and represent an important means for disposal of these byproducts, thereby creating boosted value to the food chain.
CATTLE BREEDS USED FOR BEEF Product IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The USA beef herd is very heterogeneous in nature, consisting of more than than 80 breeds and crosses thereof, and reflecting the multifariousness of environments in which they are produced. According to the most recent written report on breed registrations by the National Pedigreed Livestock Quango [5], member breed associations with the greatest number of registrations were Angus, Hereford, Simmental, Red Angus, Charolais, Gelbvieh, Brangus, Limousin, Beefmaster, Shorthorn, and Brahman. While this list gives some sense of the diversity of cattle types in the U.S., most cattle fed for slaughter actually are crossbreds, with 60% or more having some degree of Angus influence. Dairy breeds, most notably Holsteins, also make upward a substantial portion of USA feedlot cattle, with as many as iii to 4 1000000 dairy calves existence fed in USA feedlots each year.
USA SYSTEM FOR Beef Product
The USA organization of beef product is highly segmented, ofttimes resulting in several changes of ownership betwixt the time animals are weaned and slaughtered. Seedstock operations primarily produce bulls that are used to service cows in commercial cow-dogie operations. The primary product of cow-dogie operations is weaned calves, which are sold to stocker operators, backgrounding lots, or feedlots. Figure 2 illustrates the possible paths that animals may take through the beef production concatenation before beingness slaughtered. Calves from cow-calf operations more often than not follow one of two paths. They can be transferred straight to feedlots at or around the fourth dimension of weaning, in which case they are referred to as "calf-feds" that remain in the feedlot for 240 days or more earlier being harvested. Dogie-fed may make upwardly 40% or more of the fed cattle population in the USA. The largest share of the calf population, usually 60% or more than, is first placed into a backgrounding or stocker operation, or a combination thereof, to be grown for a menses of time earlier fattened on high-concentrate diets. These animals are grown mostly using forage-based diets and so transferred to feedlots when they are a twelvemonth or more of historic period, and thus are referred to as "yearlings". Stocker (grazing) and backgrounding (drylot) systems rely heavily on forages as the predominant component of the diet, supplementing protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals every bit needed to optimize cattle performance. A relatively minor proportion of backgrounded cattle are grown at modest rates of gain using limit-feeding programs in which they are fed loftier-concentrate diets, similar to a high-energy finishing diet, only in restricted amounts to prevent premature fattening.
Schematic for menstruum of cattle through the U.S. beef production chain, illustrating direct entry from cow-calf and dairy operations into feedlots (blue lines) and abattoirs (blood-red lines), or following a growing phase (purple lines) carried out in specialized facilities (calf ranches, backgrounding operations, or stocker operations).
Male person calves from dairies also constitute an important com ponent of the beef cattle market. These calves are gathered from dairies at an early age (normally about iii days) and transferred to specialized rearing operations known equally calf ranches. Calves typically are confined to private stalls to prevent intermingling, as they are highly susceptible to disease at this stage of their lives. Calves are fed a combination of milk replacers, grain, and small amounts of fodder until weaning at twoscore to eighty days of historic period, and so transferred to group housing within the aforementioned operation. These animals ordinarily are sold to feedlots when they achieve a weight of approximately 150 to 200 kg.
Cull beefiness and dairy animals also contribute to the beef sup ply, and most ordinarily are shipped from seedstock, cow-calf, or dairy operations direct to abattoirs for harvest. A relatively small and variable proportion is sent to feedlots to be fed high-energy diets for 50 to 100 days before existence slaughtered. The number of cull animals that are fattened in feedlots before existence slaughtered varies substantially from year to year, and is largely a function of the relationships between feed costs, beef supply, and beefiness demand.
Male cattle in the USA are nearly always fed equally steers, and abattoirs utilize heavy discounts to intact males or males that display advanced secondary sex characteristics. Castration effectively decreases the occurrence of undesirable social behaviors and meat quality characteristics, such every bit dark, firm, and dry beef. Muscle from steers also contains less connective tissue than that from bulls, and steers deposit more intramuscular fat (marbling) than bulls. Castration can occur at various times between birth and subsequently entry into feedlots, with the vast majority being castrated before or nearly the age of weaning. A relatively small proportion is castrated afterward entry into feedlots, though this practice is heavily discouraged and significant discounts are applied to intact feeder cattle due to high morbidity rates in animals that are castrated at an advanced historic period. In terms of methodology, balderdash calves are most frequently castrated surgically or by banding.
Heifers fed in feedlots constitute approximately 28% to xxx% of beef supply in the USA [iv]. Compared to steers, still, most feedlot heifers are fed intact, and while some are ovariectomized, it is far more common to feed melengestrol acetate (a constructed form of progesterone) to inhibit estrus beliefs.
Market weather condition at the time of weaning can greatly im pact the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Size of the national herd is cyclical in nature, owing to fluctuations in weather (such as extended draught periods), and fluctuating prices. When overall size of the national beef herd is relatively depression, fewer animals are bachelor, creating contest betwixt stocker and backgrounding operations and feedlots for supply of cattle. Relationships between prices of grain and forages likewise can influence age of entry into feedlots. When costs for pasture and harvested forages are low in comparison to grains, producers have incentive to grow cattle before placing them into feedlots. By dissimilarity, when grain prices are low relative to prices for forages, a greater proportion of eligible animals may enter the feedlot directly.
Weather likewise plays a very significant part in the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Ecology temperatures and precipitation patterns obviously touch both quantity and quality of forages produced, so it stands to reason that adverse climatic conditions can influence duration of the grazing flavour, and equally a result the proportion of cattle that are marketed as calves versus equally yearlings. For instance, several million cattle normally are grazed on small grain pastures in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas in the fall and winter each year. In the absence of acceptable rainfall, poor fodder yield may dictate premature termination of the grazing flavour, in which instance cattle are transferred to feedlots to exist fed. The same is true for native grass pastures that are grazed in the spring, summer, and fall. Drought conditions can force producers to market cattle early on, as they frequently have limited feed reserves. Regardless of crusade, the system of merchandising cattle is very dynamic, responding quickly to market weather condition.
Prices paid for slaughter cattle in the U.Southward. are influenced by age, quality grade, yield class, and weight. The Usa quality grading system takes into business relationship age, every bit adamant by bone ossification patterns, color of lean tissue, and the amount of intramuscular fat (marbling). Increased intramuscular fatty deposition increases grade, and premiums are paid for cattle that accept loftier intramuscular fat content. Yield grade is a mensurate of fatness that accounts for increases in fatty within the subcutaneous, intermuscular, and peritoneal regions of the carcass. Animals that deposit excesses of fatty in these areas generally accept poor red meat yield, and prices are discounted appropriately. Weight of carcasses likewise is an of import determinant of value, as carcasses that are less than 250 kg or more than 430 kg are bailiwick to substantial discounts. Given the high correlation between intramuscular fat and other fat depots, securing high market value requires that cattle exist fed long enough to attain sufficient (but non excessive) body fat, produce carcasses ranging in weight from 250 to 430 kg, and do so at fewer than 30 months of age. Consequently, there are limitations with respect to the ability to shift cattle into different production scenarios. For instance, cattle that are heavily influenced past British-breed ancestry ofttimes are smaller framed, and therefore do good from extended growing programs that let for skeletal growth and muscle deposition earlier fattening, thereby ensuring that they achieve desired market weights at appropriate fatness. Initiating the feedlot stage too early in the life of the animals tin predispose them to premature fattening, depression carcass weights, or both. This is specially true for heifers, which comprise a substantial portion of the fed cattle population in the USA. Alternatively, large-framed phenotypes that are typical of breeds from continental Europe can produce carcasses with excessive weights if grown for extended periods of time earlier finishing in feedlots. These animals are well-suited to the calf-fed feedlot system in which they are placed into feedlots directly afterwards weaning.
The segmented nature of the beef industry in the USA is an of import distinction from the vertical integration ordinarily associated with other meat creature production systems such as pork and poultry. While there is a relative absenteeism of vertical integration in the beefiness supply chain, there are increasingly attempts for producers representing the diverse product segments to marshal vertically with other segments via supply agreements. The value of, or necessity for, vertical alignment is peculiarly evident with branded beef programs. For example, marketing of some branded beefiness products is based on the premise of no antibiotic or steroidal hormone use throughout the lifetime of the animal, requiring that purveyors have control over production methods employed through each phase of product in lodge to ensure compliance. This frequently is accomplished using supply agreements that advantage producers with premiums for producing animals that meet specifications of the branded beef program.
Employ OF GROWTH PROMOTING TECHNOLOGIES IN U.Due south. BEEF Product SYSTEMS
Beef producers in the United states historically have been very technology driven. Examples of this include strategic supplementation of forage-based diets to fulfill animal requirements for protein, free energy, vitamins, or minerals. Several key classes of growth promotants as well are used widely, either as feed additives or as hormone-impregnated implants that are inserted beneath the pare of the ears.
Steroidal-based growth implants have been used in the U.s.a. for decades, thus making it possible to regain some of the growth-promoting furnishings of endogenous hormones that are lost as a result of castration. Implants employ estrogenic (estradiol or zeranol) and androgenic (testosterone or trenbolone acetate) components, or combinations thereof. Steroidal implants stimulate feed intake and protein deposition, and have dramatic impact on cattle performance and efficiency of feed utilization. Their use is very widespread, encompassing both growing and finishing phases of production. They are well-nigh heavily used in confinement operations, including backgrounding operations and feedlots. Notable exceptions are branded beef programs that disqualify their employ, such every bit natural, organic, or non-hormone treated cattle programs aimed at specific value-added markets.
Similarly, antibiotics have been widely used in Usa cattle production systems. Ionophore antibiotics, the most mutual of which are monensin and lasalocid, are used widely for beef production in the United states of america, both for control of coccidiosis and for improving feed efficiency. Feed additive forms of tetracyclines and macrolide antibiotics have been used extensively in the United States. Starting in January, 2017, the United states of america Nutrient and Drug Administration imposed new regulations that prohibit sub-therapeutic feeding of medically-important antibiotics [six], which includes oxtetracyline, chlortetracycline, and the macrolide antibody, tylosin. These drugs at present are restricted for utilise merely in the treatment or prevention of illness, and must exist prescribed by a veterinary. Changes in the regulatory status of these compounds has spawned an unprecedented interest in culling production methods and research aimed at reducing or eliminating antibiotics from food fauna production systems, particularly for compounds that are accounted medically important for homo health. Essential oils, minerals, prebiotics, and probiotics are amid the many product categories that are now being evaluated as alternatives to traditional antibiotics for promotion of growth and efficiency.
Beta adrenergic receptor agonists are used extensively in diets of feedlot cattle to stimulate musculus accretion. Beta agonists are non-steroidal, and they stimulate muscle accretion past increasing poly peptide synthesis and decreasing protein catabolism. The beta adrenergic agonist, ractopamine hydrochloride, was canonical for employ in cattle starting in 2003. Zilpaterol was approved for use in the United states in 2008, and though more than potent than ractopamine, zilpaterol it is now seldom used due to restrictions imposed past major slaughterhouse companies. Ractopamine is administered to cattle during the final 28 to 42 days earlier slaughter, and though the exact number of cattle fed ractopamine is not known, it is used by the vast majority of United states feedlots. A recent survey of feedlot nutritionists [seven] revealed that approximately 85% of feedlots represented in the survey employ beta agonists.
Synthetic progestin (melengestrol acetate) is fed to synchro nize estrus in convenance herds, particularly where artificial insemination is used. It is estimated that fewer than 10% of beef females are bred by bogus insemination, then the greatest use of constructed progestin is in feedlots, where they are included in the diet to suppress rut in heifers that are fed in confinement for slaughter. Feeding progestin aids in minimizing concrete injuries owing to sexual behaviors in which animals mount one another, and besides improves efficiency of feed utilization. Melengestrol acetate is non approved for apply in male bovines.
THE FEEDLOT SECTOR
The most recent census of agriculture [three] reported an estimated 26,586 feedlots in the USA. Of these, approximately 61% take fewer than 100 cattle. Approximately 77% of cattle were produced in feedlots with chapters greater than 1,000 animals. These feedlots exist throughout the United states of america, but by far the heaviest concentration of cattle finishing occurs in the Smashing Plains region, which is generally characterized by a semi-barren, temperate climate that is well-suited to cattle production. Approximately two thirds of USA feedlot cattle production is concentrated within us of Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. Logically, large abattoirs besides are concentrated within this region. Ingather production in this geography is heavily dependent on groundwater from the underlying Ogallala aquifer, which is used extensively for irrigation of corn, wheat, sorghum, and other crops.
FEEDLOT FINISHING DIETS
Free energy content of finishing diets, expressed every bit cyberspace energy for gain (NEgrand), typically ranges from 1.50 to 1.54 Mcal/kg. Consequently, diets of feedlot cattle consist primarily of cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. Corn is by far the predominant cereal grain. Wheat, which mostly is regarded as a human nutrient crop, frequently is used to displace a portion of corn in feedlot diets. Its use typically is restricted to sure times of the twelvemonth when wheat prices are low in comparison to corn, such every bit immediately following wheat harvest. Wheat and barley are, even so, the predominant grains used by feedlots in the Pacific Northwest. Sorghum is an important cereal crop produced in the semi-barren states of Kansas and Texas, and to a lesser extent Oklahoma, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Though regarded as existence nutritionally inferior to corn, it as well is incorporated into feedlot diets when economical conditions favor its employ.
Feedlots are opportunistic users of a wide range of by production energy feeds. Cereal grain byproducts have become increasingly important equally staples of feedlot cattle diets, especially in the interior of the continental USA where corn and sorghum production prevail. The most of import of these is distiller's grain, which is a byproduct of fuel ethanol product from cereal grains. Distiller's grains tin can be fed either as wet or dried co-products, the course of which is dictated by proximity of feedlots to ethanol production facilities. Growth of the fuel ethanol industry between 2000 and 2007 represented an unprecedented menses of change for the The states beef manufacture, during which traditional feedstuffs (i.e. grains) reached historically high prices while distiller's grains increased dramatically in abundance. This was cause for major shifts in composition of feedlot diets. Wet corn gluten feed (approximately 60% dry matter), which is derived as a byproduct from the production of corn sweeteners and starches, also is widely used in the feedlot sector. Distiller'southward grains, gluten feed, and other byproducts most commonly comprise between 10% and xl% of the diet dry matter for feedlot cattle. Big differentials in pricing between grain and grain byproducts occasionally dictate much greater rates of inclusion, with concentrations of byproducts reaching 70% or more of diet dry out matter in some circumstances. Other byproducts are used as well, including choose potatoes or potato processing wastes (predominantly in the Pacific Northwest), fruit and vegetable byproducts, byproducts from sugar refining, and co-products derived from milling of wheat and processing of soybeans. Many of these byproduct feeds besides incorporate intermediate to high concentrations of protein, thus making it possible to readapt all or a portion of the oilseed meals (soybean, cottonseed, sunflower, canola, and others) traditionally used to satisfy protein requirements of cattle. Consequently, dietary protein oftentimes is fed in excess, which has potentially of import environmental implications. Byproduct feeds typically comprise more phosphorus than the cereal grains that they replace, further contributing to environmental challenges associated with confined animal feeding operations.
Forages normally constitute a relatively small fraction of feedlot diets, and are used primarily to promote digestive health. Alfalfa hay and corn silage are the nearly commonly used roughages. Increased reliance on byproduct feeds in recent years has made it economically feasible to employ low poly peptide roughages in feedlot diets, including corn stalks, wheat straw, and other low-value crop residues. Forage content of finishing diets typically is in the range of 6% to 12% [7].
PRODUCTION AND DISPOSITION OF BEEF
The objective of USA feedlots is to produce beef from young cattle (<30 months of age) with aplenty tenderness and with relatively high intramuscular fatty content. The USA system of beef quality grading rewards feedlots for production of highly marbled beefiness, simply likewise discourages over-fattening of cattle through nomenclature of carcasses into one of five yield grade categories. Animals that yield carcasses in college yield form categories (iv or 5) mostly incur heavy market penalties. Size of carcasses too is important, and abattoir companies generally apply heavy price discounts for undersized (<250 kg) or oversized (>430 kg) carcasses.
The beef slaughter manufacture in the The states is heavily concen trated, with merely 4 firms accounting for more than than 80% of the beef slaughter capacity. Most of the beefiness they process is distributed in boxed form, a significant portion of which is exported to other countries. Domestic beef production in 2017 was 11.98 one thousand thousand metric tonnes, approximately 10.vi% (1.26 meg tonnes) of which was exported [8], either every bit diversity meets or as high-quality beef products. The largest volume export markets for USA beef in 2017 were Nippon (24.3%); Mexico (18.8%); South korea (fourteen.six%); Hong Kong (10.four%), Canada (9.two%); and Taiwan (3.5%). Exports were roughly offset by imports (ane.36 one thousand thousand tonnes), with Canada (24.vii%), Australia (23.ii%); United mexican states (nineteen.2%), and New Zealand (18.vi%) making up the vast majority of imported beef (and veal) products.
Per capita beef consumption of beefiness in the U.s.a. in 2017 was 25.8 kg [9], and consumption is expected to exist slightly higher or stable through 2027 [10]. It is estimated that 57% of the beefiness consumed is in the form of ground products [eleven]. Imported products, particularly from Australia, are important in fulfilling the increasing need for ground beef products.
Time to come TRENDS IN THE BEEF INDUSTRY
Domestic need for beef products is expected to remain stable. Consequently, export markets are increasingly recognized as being an important target for increasing demand for United states of america beef products. OECD/FAO estimates of 1.v% annual increases in demand for meat products through 2026 [10] are cause for optimism amidst producers. Though it is projected that most of this demand volition exist fulfilled by increases in production of poultry products, it is likely that all meat sectors volition benefit to some degree.
There is a growing trend inside the The states for large purveyors of meat products to exert influence on livestock producers, encouraging them to implement production practices that are perceived equally beingness in line with consumer interests. Among the major players are butchery companies, wholesalers, grocery bondage, the hotel and restaurant industries, and others. Topics such as sustainability, brute welfare/wellbeing, environmental compatibility, traceability, antimicrobial resistance, apply of exogenous growth promotants, natural or organic production systems, and other areas are condign increasingly common, and have emerged as fundamental elements in marketing campaigns adopted by many major food companies. This evolution in thinking challenges conventional food animal production systems, and is forcing rapid change in product practices. As a consequence, the focal points of many research programs across the United states of america have shifted to embrace these topics.
USA beefiness producers accept a long history of adapting apace to changing marketplace signals in an attempt to capture added value. Branded beef programs, which institute a form of vertical integration or alignment, are relatively commonplace. Maybe the all-time known of these is the Certified Angus Beefiness program, which since its inception in 1978 has arguably transformed the The states beefiness manufacture as a effect of substantial premiums paid to cattle producers for producing beefiness that fulfills certain quality standards. In excess of 60% of cattle fed in the U.s. now have some proportion of Angus ancestry, which is testimony to the success of the program that is now recognized globally as beingness consistent with quality. Numerous other programs have been spawned in the last twoscore years, with the US Section of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service at present listing 90 unlike federal certification programs for beef, eighty of which were conceived in the yr 2000 or afterwards. Scores of other non-certified branding programs accept appeared at the consumer level likewise, touting features such as omega-3 enrichment of beef; antibiotic gratis; hormone-free; organic feeding programs; grass-fed programs, and others that are distinguished by the region of product, specific producers, or other features. All are aimed at enhancing value past advertising appealing attributes for which consumers are willing to pay price premiums. As branding programs go more prevalent, vertical alignment between diverse sectors of the beef manufacture also is increasingly common. A class of symbiosis tin can develop in which large production units or consortia of producers align themselves with retail outlets, hotels, or big restaurant companies to ensure ongoing demand or to capture market premiums for their products. In turn, the food companies do good through supply agreements that guarantee availability or pricing of products that are produced to come across certain standards that can encompass beef quality, meat composition (as in the case of omega-three enrichment), environmental compatibility, sustainability, or production practices that exclude antibiotics and(or) growth promotants, and numerous other marketable concepts.
Traceability programs accept been a topic of much discus sion for the past two decades. This discussion intensified immediately post-obit events in December of 2003 surrounding importation of a choose dairy moo-cow from Canada that was discovered to have been infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Several key export markets subsequently were closed to USA beef, which had devastating financial consequences for beef producers and abattoir companies in the USA. Producer organizations are, for the most part, however, opposed to development of a federally-mandated traceability arrangement, opting instead for a voluntary system of animate being identification and traceability that is market-driven.
In January of 2017 the USA Food and Drug administration fully enacted revised regulations aimed at decreasing use of medically-important antibiotics in nutrient animate being production systems [6]. Central to the new regulations is the necessity for veterinarian oversight of antibody use. Drugs that previously were bachelor "over the counter" now can be used simply with the written prescription of a licensed veterinarian. Since the regulations took effect, pharmaceutical companies that produce affected drug compounds have cited sharp declines in demand for their products, meat purveyors and retailers have publicly announced timelines for procurement of products produced without antibiotics, and major beefiness producers have announced strategies that will exist (or accept been) implemented to subtract antibiotic use. The "anti" antibiotic movement is thus well underway, and information technology has given birth to an era of research pertaining to identification of antibiotic alternatives for utilise in livestock. Much of our own enquiry at Kansas Country University is devoted to the task of finding alternative strategies for mitigation of digestive disorders or infectious diseases, but without use of antibiotics. Whether every bit a event of market pressures or regulatory changes, it seems inevitable that beef production systems of the future are apt to use product practices that preclude employ of antibiotics.
Probiotics are condign increasingly prevalent in the beef production chain, just especially feedlot systems. It has been estimated that approximately 60% of feedlot cattle receive some form of probiotic [7]. Oftentimes these consist of Lactobacillus species, fed lone or in combination with Propionibacterium. Normalization of gastrointestinal tract part and competitive inhibition of nutrient-borne pathogens, such as E. coli O157:H7 [12], are the near commonly cited reasons for their use. More recently, Megasphaera elsdenii, a lactate-utilizing bacteria, has been introduced into the market. Reported benefits include abstention of ruminal acidosis and the power to transition more speedily to loftier-concentrate diets [thirteen], every bit well equally improved cattle performance and decreased incidence of disease in young cattle after arrival in feedlots [xiv]. Anecdotal show from commercial abattoirs has suggested it may too decrease fecal shedding of food-borne pathogens, simply this event has still to be validated in a controlled research experiment.
Plants extracts as feed additives constitutes some other agile area of enquiry, with the notion that these compounds may be useful as substitutes for conventional antimicrobial drugs as a result of their antimicrobial activities. Several plant extracts take been studied in depth, including beta acids of hops [15], menthol [16], eugenol [17], cinnamaldehyde [18], limonene [xix], and others, and their impact on gut microflora is in some cases well documented. These compounds oft emulate the deportment of traditional antibiotic drugs, owing in office to similarities in chemic structure. Similarly, heavy metals, including the trace minerals copper and zinc, have been exploited for antibiotic-like effects [xx], particularly when used in pigs or poultry, but also in cattle. Zinc is the antimicrobial mineral of option in cattle due to the relative toxicity of copper, and frequently it is fed at supra-nutritional concentrations to suppress bacteria that cause foot-rot (infectious pododermatitis), or to aid in combatting respiratory illness. Numerous studies have revealed that information technology is possible to co-select for resistance to antimicrobial drugs when leaner are exposed to plant extracts [21] or high concentrations of heavy metals [22,23], even without exposure to the antimicrobial drugs themselves. Given that the basis for excluding antibiotic drugs from the diets of cattle is to avoid development of antimicrobial resistance in gastrointestinal tract bacteria, it would seem that like circumspection is warranted in the awarding of constitute extracts or heavy metals as antimicrobials, in spite of the fact that they are not marketed specifically as antibiotics.
The USDA does not maintain official statistics on volumes of antibody-free, non-hormone treated, or organic beef. In 2012 information technology was estimated that over 4% of retail foods sold in the U.South. were organically produced [24]. Fruits and vegetable led the market in organic sales, while 3% of meat/poultry/fish were estimated to take been produced organically. According to the Organic Trade Association [25], sales of organic meat and poultry surged by 17% in 2016, and full sales were expected to exceed $i billion dollars for the first time in 2017. Certification of organically produced meats is administered by the USDA, which maintains official standards for organic production practices. Currently, availability of sufficient quantities of certified organic feedstuffs constitutes a major limitation for growth of this segment of the beef manufacture. Several branding programs certified by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service specify beef equally being "antibiotic free" or "not-hormone treated". Some of these restrict their definition to a specified production phase, while others reflect production practices employed throughout the lifetime of the fauna. There is a sense that demand for this marketplace segment is increasing, simply official estimates are not available. Programs for production of cattle without use of hormones, referred to as non-hormone treated cattle, are key to penetrating sure markets, both domestically and internationally. Cost of production generally is higher for any of the specialty programs compared to conventional production systems, and producers must therefore exist rewarded accordingly with cost premiums.
CONCLUSION
The states beefiness supply is the product of a multi-segmented industry that is consolidating into larger and larger production units, and is increasingly characterized by vertical alignment among industry segments, as well as with nutrient wholesalers and retailers and the hotel and eatery industries. The industry makes utilize of a wide spectrum of nutritional inputs and creature phenotypes that span a broad range of geographies and climates. The industry is closely tied to natural grazing resources, as well as cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. It is highly adaptive, responding rapidly to marketplace signals that reward innovation and alignment with consumer demands. The industry makes all-encompassing use of a wide range of technologies related to feed processing, identity preservations, and growth promotion. Complexity of beef markets is increasing due to extensive branding efforts and development of niche markets, and demand for product of beef representing grass-fed, non-hormone, not-antibiotic, and organic beef markets is growing steadily. Maintaining and expanding demand for Usa beef likely will necessitate ongoing efforts to develop markets for export, both for variety meats and for loftier-value cuts of beefiness.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is contribution number xviii-601-J of the Kansas Agronomical Experiment Station, Manhattan.
Footnotes
Conflict OF INTEREST
We certify that in that location is no conflict of involvement with any fiscal organization regarding the textile discussed in the manuscript.
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Articles from Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences are provided here courtesy of Asian-Australasian Association of Fauna Product Societies (AAAP)
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6039332/
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